Fashions Of The 1950s Era Cultural Studies Essay

Styles Of The 1950s Era Cultural Studies Essay The 1950s were an intriguing time in the United States that left an amazing blemish on our general public. Design during this remarkable time was incredibly inventive and expressive, and extra time advanced into notable pictures that are over and again duplicated in style today. The now popular styles are recorded symbols in our way of life that are perceived by most of Americans. The design of the 1950s is truly vital to our general public since it was, defiant, enrapturing, and one of a kind. The 1950s are regularly thought of as a period with traditionalist families who had respectful youngsters that tuned in to their folks manages, and lived in cutout rural networks. While for some this was valid, there was likewise a lot of high school resistance that came out of this period. As the 1950s opened, Americas teenagers were essentially a moderate, unrebellious lot. [1] At the very beginning of the 1950s youngsters worshiped the equivalent more seasoned age figures as their folks, so factors for an insubordination were basically not there. In any case, in the early piece of the decade more youthful symbols emerged and new social variables started the beginning of an adolescent resistance and, By the late fifties Americas young people had procured their very own unmistakable subculture. They had their own cash, music, films, network shows, icons, garments, and slang. [2] They had discovered their own styles and they fixated on easygoing dress, rather than the upstand ing design of more established ages. This disobedience was effectively communicated through energizing new molds that had never been seen. These styles turned into an indispensable angle to the 1950s time that are currently perceived and imitated in the design world today. The crisp attire thoughts for adolescent young ladies included, moved up pants, full dresses with crinolines, skirts combined with sweaters, easygoing shirts, jackets, tube dresses, sack dresses, two-piece swimsuits, and earthy colored and white seat shoes. Secondary school young men were normally found in sport shirts, denim pants with moved up sleeves, loose pegged pants, creased rouge pants with a white side stripe, V-neck sweaters, slacks with back clasps, conservative striped shirts, overcoats, and loafers. [3] Favorite shading beds and structures consolidated into these styles were polka specks, sensational brilliant hues, and pale pastel colors. [4] One of the best in class youngster symbols was Reb el without a Cause, James Dean, whose notorious look comprised of a white tee shirt and game jacket. [5] This good example prompted a similar age gathering of young men demonstrating their own resistance through an intense mentality, dark cowhide coats, pants, and tee shirts with moved sleeves to hold cigarette packs. This exceptionally insubordinate group got known as Greasers, an entirely unmistakable subculture. To proceed, style during the 1950s was dazzling for some Americans of the time. While the style of the insubordinate youngsters is now and then the spotlight of Fifties design, more seasoned ages additionally grasped new design thoughts. Americans during the 1950s were up to speed in numerous mainstream crazes. Maybe to take their psyches off the approaching dangers to Americas Securityà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ã‚ [6] In 1950 mainstream style planner Christian Dior made structures for his idea of the New Look, and it immediately turned into the encapsulation of design for ladies at that point. His model underscored an hourglass shape (still well known today), skintight fitting, thin midsection, and a full flared skirt. Alongside this most popular trend perfect, it was additionally well known for Fifties ladies to wear design staples, for example, stiletto heels, splendid red lipstick, caps, and gloves. During the 1950s it was regular for ladies to be housewives, yet many were additionally wor king outside the home, Although womens jobs were changing, the most famous designs of the 1950s accentuated womens gentility and sexuality. [7] Overall, for ladies a look of expert woman's rights was depicted, however with little youngsters a progressively fun look was stylish. The most noteworthy of these looks was that of the bobby soxers, comprising of two-tone saddle shoes, lower leg socks, white shirts, delicate sweaters, neck scarves, and poodle skirts. Poodle skirts are a staple of the 1950s that were much of the time worn to Sock Hops and were, full roundabout skirts beautified with felt patches of all around coiffed French poodles and were the design rage for high schooler girls. [8] A feeling of style was even invited by little youngsters as a result of the ubiquity of Western TV programs; in this manner, kids would regularly mirror the appearance of their most loved cowboy. [9] Even male style started to take a progressively alluring and less solid turn, appar el, for example, keen suits, sports coats, and pants with permenant creases. [10] In end, the 1950s engaging style gave ladies a look of refined women's liberation, gave men a look of loosened up demonstrable skill, and gave more youthful ages a look of joyful fun. At long last, it is anything but difficult to see that the dress styles and molds of the ages were special to the time, however congruity was likewise an acknowledged thought at the time too. Indeed, even the most self-expressive gathering wanted to fit it, Teenagers were additionally extremely traditionalist: They were exceptionally worried about what their companions thought of their dress, conduct, and thoughts, and they made a decent attempt to be a piece of the gathering and not be named a weirdo or individualist. [11] It could be induced that the explanation behind this should be the equivalent through style may have originated from the developing rural way of life in the United States, which was about congruity through appearance. Consequently, design during the 1950s was regularly not tied in with being a person with your very own style, it was dependent on being separated of an all inclusive style. The styles were so exceptionally got that they could be seen on nearly ev erybody of the decade. For instance, ground-breaking representatives of the time donned the notorious dim wool suits, which were combined with limited overflowed hats. [12] As a consequence of TVs attacking homes, and cinemas developing, reverence of stars like Marilyn Monroe and Audrey Hepburn, added to the yearning to accomplish an in vogue look of impressive complexity and elegance. [13] Of course, there were special cases to the congruity perfect, and these gatherings were known as The Beatniks. These were residents who despised similarity and isolated themselves from the famous molds by wearing dark turtleneck sweaters, Levis, and shoes for men and dark leotards and short skirts for ladies. Incidentally, the style that they created to dissent being the equivalent turned into a similarity in itself. [14] To summarize, despite the fact that 1950s design could be inconceivably traditionalist, the styles themselves were certainly exceptional and something that the natio n had never experienced, yet immediately cherished and would keep on revering for a long time into the future. Taking everything into account, the design of the 1950s was loaded up with mixes of in vogue, loose, fun, exquisite, and complex styles. The first forms of this adored decade are as yet cherished in the public arena today, and these designs are regularly still imitated in different styles in the design world. Since 1950s design was insubordinate, charming, and novel, it has advanced into an essential piece of history that will consistently have a component of current styles for a considerable length of time to come. The Fifties style summarizes everything that is complimenting, doesn't have all the earmarks of being a created design proclamation, and shows great style.â [15]â

A Threat to Our Environmental Freedom Essay Example

A Threat to Our Environmental Freedom Paper Cholera, otherwise known as Asiatic Cholera or plague cholera, is an irresistible illness of the gastrointestinal tract brought about by the Brio cholera bacterium. From the family Variances, the bacterium is portrayed as a gram-negative bar. Similarly as with other gram-negative poles, Brio cholera creates an indention, known as cholera poison. This bacterium is portable because of the nearness of a solitary polar flagellum and is profoundly irresistible. The Brio cholera bacterium develops in both freshwater and marine natural surroundings and furthermore in relationship with amphibian creatures. Initially found in 1824 by the Italian Anatomist, Fillips Pacing, Brio holler no doubt began in India with the Ganges River filling in as the essential sullying supply. Almost 30 years after the fact bacteriologists Robert Koch and John Snow found the connection among Cholera and drinking water. Since its disclosure in the mid nineteenth century Cholera has asserted numerous lives because of its transmission by means of the drinking water gracefully. Through numerous long stretches of research and chlorination of drinking water supplies, Cholera has not been viewed as a danger to the United States and Western Europe for about a century. In any case, intentional presentation of the bacterium into a nearby water apply, could undoubtedly cause defilement and mass spread of disease. Bola hemorrhagic fever (UHF) is a profoundly irresistible, exceptionally deadly malady brought about by the Bola infection. Bola infection is an individual from the family Overridden and is named after the Bola River in the Republic of Congo (once in the past Zaire) which is the place the principal scourge happened in 1994. We will compose a custom exposition test on A Threat to Our Environmental Freedom explicitly for you for just $16.38 $13.9/page Request now We will compose a custom paper test on A Threat to Our Environmental Freedom explicitly for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Recruit Writer We will compose a custom paper test on A Threat to Our Environmental Freedom explicitly for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Recruit Writer The infection is named follows: Group: Group V ((- )Sara) Order: Monosyllables Family: Fluoridate Genus: Oblivious Species: Ivory Coast negligent Restore unmindful Sudan neglectful Zaire absent The initial two strains of the infection were distinguished in 1 976 in Zaire and Sudan. Dry. F. A. Murphy was the first to seclude the infection and catch it for electron microscopy. Dry. Murphy noticed that the infection was a straightforward strand RNA infection with encoding for seven viral proteins. Since its revelation and introductory flare-ups, four sub-species have been secluded (as plot above) which are named after their particular episode areas. Because of its profoundly irresistible nature and its capacity to change quickly, Bola infection has a death pace of about 77%. In spite of the fact that, not a treat in the United States and other humanized countries, the Bola infection could represent a genuine wellbeing hazard if deliberately brought into the water or food gracefully. A protein on the outside of the infection has been found that is answerable for the serious inside dying (the demise managing highlight of the illness). The protein assaults and obliterates the endothelial cells lining veins, making the vessels spill and drain. Truth be told, the infection has a quite certain tropism for liver cells and cells of the radiotelephones framework, e. G. Macrophages. Enormous annihilation of the liver is the trademark highlight of Bola infection. The Bola infection, once inside a host, starts to repeat. The seven proteins cap make up the body of the infection start to expend the host cell as the infection begins making duplicates of itself. These seven proteins assault the body of the cell and some way or another assault the auxiliary proteins of the body of the host. As the infection advances, it shows itself through dying, particularly in the mucosa, midsection, pericardium, and vagina. The slim spillage prompts loss of blood volume, seeping from different focuses in the body, stun, and intense respiratory issue. Contaminations with Bola infection are intense with a brooding period going from 2 to 21 days. Cholera is an intense ailment portrayed by watery looseness of the bowels and is brought about by specific individuals from the species Brio cholera (microbes). The cholera germ is passed in the stools. The poison discharged by the microbes causes expanded emission of water and chloride particles in the digestive tract, which can create enormous looseness of the bowels. Demise can result from the extreme drying out welcomed on by the looseness of the bowels. The side effects may seem 1 to 7 days subsequent to eating food or drinking water polluted with the microscopic organisms, regularly inside 2 to 3 days. Pollution is from contact with the defecation or heaves of somebody contaminated tit cholera. Cholera is transmitted by fecal-oral course (eating or drinking food or water sullied by the fecal misuse of a contaminated individual). Vireos are delicate to corrosive, and most bite the dust in the stomach. Enduring harmful living beings may cling to and colonize the little inside, where they emit the strong cholera intercession (CT, additionally called cholera). This poison ties to the plasma layer of intestinal epithelial cells and discharges a cryptically dynamic subunit that causes an ascent in cyclic adenosine 51 - Mephistopheles (CAMP) creation. The subsequent high intracellular CAMP level causes huge emission of electrolytes and water into the intestinal lumen. Side effects of cholera are an intense, looseness of the bowels disease brought about by contamination of the digestive system with the bacterium Brio Cholera. One of 20 people will have extreme infection with lavish watery looseness of the bowels, regurgitating, and leg cramps. The fast loss of body liquids and weight lead to parchedness and circulatory breakdown. Passing can happen inside hours. Indications of Bola are fever, migraine, joint and muscle torment, sore throat, shortcoming, which are trailed by loose bowels, retching, and stomach torment. A few patients have a rash, red eyes and interior and outside dying. An individual gets tainted with cholera microscopic organisms by expending debased food or water. In many plagues the disease originates from human excrement, which pollute insufficiently treated sewage. The microscopic organisms can likewise live in waterways and costal waters where it defiles shellfish. Half-cooked shellfish have been a wellspring of cholera. The infection isn't probably spread by direct individual to-individual contact. Cholera is analyzed by research center confinement of the bacterium from a feces test or by discovering antibodies in serum demonstrating ongoing contamination. The structural types of Cholera are O bunch 1 or 139 and can be distinguished fashioned gram strain or culture. Darkled of stage differentiate microscopy can legitimately picture motile brio. By and large analysis is clinical by water looseness of the bowels and lack of hydration. Cholera is most successfully treated through emphasis of liquids and salts lost through the runs. An oral emphasis arrangement that consolidates sugar and salts n prepackaged recipe is blended in with water and utilized all through the world bringing about a 1% mortality with treatment contrasted with 20-25% without. Cut off cases may require intravenous liquid substitution. Anti-infection agents may abbreviate course and diminish seriousness of side effects just as decline shedding of iris yet should target life form helplessness as anti-infection opposition is a developing issue. The regular supply of the infection is obscure similar to the way in which it clench hand shows up during an episode. It has been guessed that the file tolerant gets tainted through contact with an evil creature. After the main case understanding, the infection can be transmitted through direct contact with tainted blood or discharges or through contact with sullied items, for example, needles. Monoclonal transmission is regular in flare-ups when social insurance laborers don't wear appropriate defensive garments. Bola is type of viral hemorrhagic fever that is typically clinically analyzed by the group of stars of indications portrayed. Lab conclusion is through ELISE testing for IGMP antibodies and PC and infection disconnection can be utilized to recognize infection inside a couple of long stretches of manifestation beginning. Later in course of ailment Gig antibodies can be tried. There is no remedial treatment for Bola. Just steady medications including liquid and electrolyte adjusting, and upkeep of oxygen status and circulatory strain are accessible. In March 1999, cholera was recognized in the nation without precedent for 10 ears and was moving quick all through the nation. Poor water quality and sanitation framework were the major contributing variables to high paces of cholera. By November 1 999, 30 of the least fortunate networks in urban Anticipation, which is the capital of Madagascar, was picked as the objective populace for guiding the Safe Water System in the nation. The framework comprised of conduct change procedures alongside purpose of-utilization treatment and safe stockpiling of water. The associations who teamed up on this venture were the CARE Madagascar (Community Assistance for Relief Everywhere), Populace Services International (SSI) and the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). CARE Madagascar executed and joined network control, Population Services International dealt with the social showcasing and the US Center for Disease Control and Prevention took care of the program assessment. The social advertising included neighborhood creation of a 0. 5% sodium hypochlorite arrangement bundled in a 500-ml container, and sum adequate to treat roughly 2000 L of water. A nearby organization was then contracted to create 20-L restricted mouthed plastic jerry jars. The brand name given was Usurers, French for safe water. The program was propelled a very long time in front of timetable as a result of the quick increment in the infection. The jug of water was offered to wholesalers and retailers in the networks taking an interest in the program and gave the item to CARE-prepared network based deals operators. The associations planned radio and TV spots and gave out leaflets and banners. Initially the task was restricted to the 30 neighborhoods, b

Role of a SIPA Peer Advisor COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY - SIPA Admissions Blog

Role of a SIPA Peer Advisor COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY - SIPA Admissions Blog Starting graduate school can be a difficult challenge for many of us, especially if we’ve been out of school for a while. Moving to a new city (NYC!), dealing again with school pressure, and juggling personal and professional tasks during your arrival can be overwhelming. Despite all these trials, I remember my first semester at SIPA as a great experience that exceeded all my expectations. Today I am certain that this positive experience started with a smooth transition to my new life: I was fortunate that second-year students gave me their advice, guidance, and support. That is why I decided to participate in the first SIPA Peer Advisor Program that was launched last fall during Orientation Week. Around 15 of my second-year classmates were selected to assist and welcome the incoming class of 2014. I was a Peer Advisor for 24 students of the most diverse nationalities and backgrounds.   As a second-year student I shared with first-years useful information and insight to SIPA’s demanding academic and vibrant social life. I did my best to help them understand the process of searching for courses and registration; gave them details on the some of the courses they were eager to take; and explained how to get to a room that seemed impossible to find. I also shared with them some of my strategies for academic success and time management in order to take full advantage of SIPA’s and Columbia’s offerings. In the evenings, I joined them in the social events and parties that took place during Orientation Week. My advisees became so close that they still have lunch almost every Tuesday. Personally, being part of Orientation Week as a SIPA Peer Advisor was a great experience because I got to know new people with diverse interests and tons of stories to tell. At the same time, it was a nice opportunity to serve SIPA and its community ?? Posted by: Mariana Iturriaga-Cossío, MIA, Degree Candidate 2013 and SIPA Peer Advisor

Religion and Science Can They Coexist in the Modern World

Religion and Science: Can They Coexist in the Modern World Since the dawn of man, humans have struggled to explain the many mysteries of the universe, and to justify their existence in it. Throughout this journey of self-understanding, numerous standpoints about human existence have evolved and merged into a complex, abstract manifestation called religion. Advances in science and technology have yielded a new breed of human thought that has disturbed and shaken the foundations of religious ideology. The new, scientifically-grounded understanding of the universe has unfolded a plethora of answers to age-old questions, which are antithetical to the explanations offered by some religious beliefs. The Bible has answered the questions: how†¦show more content†¦Many religious thinkers have responded to this evidence, by claiming that the methods used to ascertain the Earths age are inaccurate. They argue that radioactive dating; a widely accepted method of determining the age of rocks, is inaccurate because there is no available rock sa mple of a known age, to which the method can be calibrated. However, this argument is obsolete because the only calibration required to find the age of a rock is the measurement of decay rates, which can be found in the laboratory in a controlled experiment (Badash, 1995, 90). Because of the evidence provided by scientific research, many religious thinkers have been forced to compromise their position, and have attempted to blend scientific fact with biblical accounts of the age of the earth. Many theists contend that the words of the Bible are metaphorical, and can be interpreted in a way that reconciles the biblical account of the Earths age with scientific fact. According to Genesis, the first book of the Old Testament, the earth was created in six days: And God saw every thing that he had made, and, behold, it was very good. And the evening and the morning were the sixth day (Genesis 1:31). They argue that other passages in the book of Genesis can be interpreted to mean that a day to God can be thousands of years, and because of this, the Earth could have been created over a much longer timeframe than six days, and can thus be asShow MoreRelatedSimilarities And Differences Of Science And Religion1585 Words   |  7 PagesZamora Gabriela Professor: R. Stringer Friday English 101 Class 12/05/14 Similarities and Differences of Science and Religion Where do we come from? Why are we here? And What is our purpose are questions that many of us ask ourselves sometime. During the debate on, Does Science Refutes God?, it is well seen that science can overthrow the credibility of God because science has a lot of relevant studies and conclusions, but it certainly does not refute God. It is clearly seen that shermer and KrauzeRead MoreThe Star by Arthur C. Clarke and the Juxtaposition of Science and Religion704 Words   |  3 Pagesabout science and religion, one can find it quite amusing. If science and religion are to continue to coexist it seems opposed to the conditions of modern thought to admit that this result can be brought about by the so-called water-tight compartment system which, even at the present time, is frequently extolled or considered possible.(Boutroux, 406) Two powerful forces that coexist yet each of them deny one another, but yet they define one another. The perfect paradox within the world of bothRead MoreCreation or Evolution - Let the Children Chose Essay1349 Words   |  6 Pageshave, as people we can choose to do just about anything and anywhere. There is however a place where most of the American children have no choice at all, what to believe when it comes to science. It is a mystery among men, the question that has every person in the world wonder, â€Å"Where did it all come from?† Over the last forty to fifty years, the United States Government has decided to separate church and state, so why is evolution taught? Evolution is a religion, it is not science. The scientific methodRead MoreCan Religion and Science be Compatible?1326 Words   |  5 PagesCan Religion and Science be Compatible? Accepting the compatibility between science and religion is a tactic used by those who instinctively fear that a manifest conflict between the two areas would endanger the future of science. They are worried about the possibility that scientists would not receive any financial support or that science classes in schools might be replaced with hours of religion. A huge number of atheist scientists are aware of the negative role, that they have irrational ideasRead MoreIslam And Western Imperialism In Islam998 Words   |  4 PagesAlthough the Islamic world has faced many challenges throughout history, Islam’s encounter with Western imperialism during the nineteenth and twentieth centuries has had the greatest impact on contemporary Islam. These encounters with Western powers influenced and shaped the Muslim world by introducing Islam to modernity. The Islamic world’s varied reaction to these challenges of modernity affects a wide range of issues in Islam today. To understand how the Muslim world reacted to Western influenceRead MoreNicholas Copernicus : Heroes And Villains933 Words   |  4 Pagessignificant impact on future astronomers and led to the birth of modern science. Copernicus’ discoveries had a significant effect on the scientists, astronomers, and mathematicians of the next two centuries. For example, â€Å"Tycho Brahe (1546-1601), the Danish astronomer, ... one of Copernicuss immediate successors, †¦ [made] painstaking observations and calculations proved the fundamental truth of the Copernican system. †¦ [he was the] father of modern practical astronomy.† Because Copernicus sparked the CopernicanRead MoreEpistemology - Are science and religion in conflict? Essay1824 Words   |  8 Pagesrelationship between science and religion is a difficult one and the two sides have tested each other and debated each other in many forums. Some believe there are major differences in science and religion and that the two can never coexist while others believe that science is in fact evidence that religious views are correct. To better understand and answer the question of whether the two sides really do conflict we will look at: my view on the subject, the definitions of both science and religion, basic argumentsRead MoreThe Clash of Faith and Evidence1545 Words   |  6 PagesClash of Faith and Evidence History has shown that in the past, religion dominated as an explanation of knowledge and was used to explain many of the worlds mysteries such as why the sun rises and sets and how the world came to be. Science, using concrete and tested evidence, gave light to many of these mysteries and debunked the myths created from religion. In todays modern society, science has advanced in a remarkable fashion. Science has broken down objects into structured molecules, found theRead MoreWhy Science and Religion Can and Must Coexist Essay1507 Words   |  7 PagesThroughout history, religion and science have been in constant conflict with each other. The arrest and excommunication of astronomer Galileo1 for teaching that the earth is flat and revolves around the sun is just one example of this conflict. Many religious leaders2 and scientists3 today believe that science and religion are fundamentally different and will always contradict each other. But with what reason? Religion has always tr ied to answer our questions in an instinctual way, based on emotionsRead MoreChristianity and Psychology Integrated1641 Words   |  7 PagesChristianity and psychology have always seemed to have nothing in common with one another; even to the point that people think they are completely separate and hostile entities. I believe that they can be used to bolster one another and can be used together to edify the body of believers. Pastors and other spiritual leaders use psychology every day when counseling the body of believers. This is a normal occurrence and should be supported by the psychological and Christian communities. Psychology

Boyles Law Definition in Chemistry

Boyles law states that the pressure of an ideal gas increases as its container volume decreases. Chemist and physicist Robert Boyle published the law in 1662. The gas law is sometimes called Mariottes law or the Boyle-Mariotte law because French physicist Edme Mariotte independently discovered the same law in 1679. Boyles Law Equation Boyles law is an ideal gas law where at a constant temperature, the volume of an ideal gas is inversely proportional to its absolute pressure. There are a couple of ways of expressing the law as an equation. The most basic one states: PV k where P is pressure, V is volume, and k is a constant. The law may also be used to find the pressure or volume of a system when the temperature is held constant: PiVi PfVf where: Pi initial pressureVi initial volumePf final pressureVf final volume Boyles Law and Human Breathing Boyles law may be applied to explain how people breathe and exhale air. When the diaphragm expands and contracts, lung volume increases and decreases, changing the air pressure inside of them. The pressure difference between the interior of the lungs and the external air produces either inhalation or exhalation. Sources Levine, Ira. N (1978). Physical Chemistry. University of Brooklyn: McGraw-Hill.Tortora, Gerald J. and Dickinson, Bryan. Pulmonary Ventilation in  Principles of Anatomy and Physiology  11th edition. Hoboken: John Wiley Sons, Inc., 2006, pp. 863-867.

Romeo and Juliet Film and Text Analysis Free Essays

Phonology What is phonology? Phonology is the study of the sound system of languages. It is a huge area of language theory and it is difficult to do more on a general language course than have an outline knowledge of what it includes. In an exam, you may be asked to comment on a text that you are seeing for the first time in terms of various language descriptions, of which phonology may be one. We will write a custom essay sample on Romeo and Juliet Film and Text Analysis or any similar topic only for you Order Now At one extreme, phonology is concerned with anatomy and physiology – the organs of speech and how we learn to use them. At another extreme, phonology shades into socio-linguistics as we consider social attitudes to features of sound such as accent and intonation. And part of the subject is concerned with finding objective standard ways of recording speech, and representing this symbolically. For some kinds of study – perhaps a language investigation into the phonological development of young children or regional variations in accent, you will need to use phonetic transcription to be credible. But this is not necessary in all kinds of study – in an exam, you may be concerned with stylistic effects of sound in advertising or literature, such as assonance, rhyme or onomatopoeia – and you do not need to use special phonetic symbols to do this. The physics and physiology of speech Man is distinguished from the other primates by having the apparatus to make the sounds of speech. Of course most of us learn to speak without ever knowing much about these organs, save in a vague and general sense – so that we know how a cold or sore throat alters our own performance. Language scientists have a very detailed understanding of how the human body produces the sounds of speech. Leaving to one side the vast subject of how we choose particular utterances and identify the sounds we need, we can think rather simply of how we use our lungs to breathe out air, produce vibrations in the larynx and then use our tongue, teeth and lips to modify the sounds. The diagram below shows some of the more important speech organs. Phonology This kind of diagram helps us to understand what we observe in others but is less useful in understanding our own speech. Scientists can now place small cameras into the mouths of experimental subjects, and observe some of the physical movements that accompany speech. But most of us move our vocal organs by reflexes or a sense of the sound we want to produce, and are not likely to benefit from watching movement in the vocal fold. The diagram is a simplified cross-section through the human head – which we could not see in reality in a living speaker, though a simulation might be instructive. But we do observe some external signs of speech sounds apart from what we hear. A few people have the ability to interpret most of a speaker’s utterances from lip-reading. But many more have a sense of when the lip-movement does or does not correspond to what we hear – we notice this when we watch a feature film with dubbed dialogue, or a TV broadcast where the sound is not synchronized with what we see. The diagram can also prove useful in conjunction with descriptions of sounds – for example indicating where the airflow is constricted to produce fricatives, whether on the palate, the alveolar ridge, the teeth or the teeth and lips together. Speech therapists have a very detailed working knowledge of the physiology of human speech, and of exercises and remedies to overcome difficulties some of us encounter in speaking, where these have physical causes. An understanding of the anatomy is also useful to various kinds of expert who train people to use their voices in special or unusual ways. These would include singing teachers and voice coaches for actors, as well as the even more specialized coaches who train actors to produce the speech sounds of hitherto unfamiliar varieties of English or other languages. At a more basic level, my French teacher at school insisted that we (his pupils) could produce certain vowel sounds only with our mouths more open than we would ever need to do while speaking English. And a literally stiff upper lip is a great help if one wishes to mimic the speech sounds of Queen Elizabeth II.  © Copyright: Andrew Moore, 2001 http://www. shunsley. eril. net/armoore/ Phonology So what happens? Mostly we use air that is moving out of our lungs (pulmonic egressive air) to speak. We may pause while breathing in, or try to use the ingressive air – but this is likely to produce quiet speech, which is unclear to our listeners. (David Crystal notes how the normally balanced respiratory cycle is altered by speech, so that we breathe out slowly, using the air for speech, and breathe in swiftly, in order to keep talking). In languages other than English, speakers may also use non-pulmonic sound, such as clicks (found in southern Africa) or glottalic sounds (found worldwide). In the larynx, the vocal folds set up vibrations in the egressive air. The vibrating air passes through further cavities which can modify the sound and finally are articulated by the passive (immobile) articulators – the hard palate, the alveolar ridge and the upper teeth – and the active (mobile) articulators. These are the pharynx, the velum (or soft palate), the jaw and lower teeth, the lips and, above all, the tongue. This is so important and so flexible an organ, that language scientists identify different regions of the tongue by name, as these are associated with particular sounds. Working outwards these are: †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ the back – opposite the soft palate the centre – opposite the meeting point of hard and soft palate the front – opposite the hard palate the blade – the tapering area facing the ridge of teeth the tip – the extreme end of the tongue The first three of these (back, centre and front) are known together as the dorsum (which is Latin for backbone or spine) Phonology, phonemes and phonetics You may have known for some time that the suffix –phone is to do with sounds. Think, for instance, of telephone, microphone, gramophone and xylophone. The morpheme comes from Greek phonema, which means a sound. †¢ †¢ Telephone means â€Å"distant sound† Microphone means â€Å"small sound† (because it sends an input to an amplifier which in turn drives loudspeakers – so the original sound is small compared to the output sound) Gramophone was originally a trade name . It comes from inverting the original form, phonograph (=sound-writing) – so called because the sound caused a needle to trace a pattern on a wax cylinder. The process is reversed for playing the sound back Xylophone means â€Å"wood sound† (because the instrument is one of very few where the musical note is produced simply by making wood resonate) †¢ The fundamental unit of grammar is a morpheme. A basic unit of written language is a grapheme. And the basic unit of sound is a phoneme. However, this is technically what Professor Crystal describes as â€Å"the smallest contrastive unit† and it is highly useful to you in explaining things – but strictly speaking may not exist in real spoken language use. That is, almost anything you say is a continuum and you rarely assemble a series of discrete sounds into a connected whole. (It is possible to do this with synthesised speech, as used by Professor Stephen Hawking – but the result is so different from naturally occurring speech that we can recognize it instantly. And there is no perfect or single right way to say anything – just as well because we can never exactly reproduce a previous performance.  © Copyright: Andrew Moore, 2001 http://www. shunsley. eril. net/armoore/ Phonology However, in your comments on phonology, you will certainly want sometimes to focus on single phonemes or small sequences of phonemes. A phoneme is a sound segment of words or syllables. Quite a good way to understand how it may indicate meaning is to consider how replacing it with another phoneme will change the word – so if we replace the middle sound in bad we can make bawd, bed, bid, bird and bud. In two cases here one letter is replaced with two but in all these cases it is a single vowel sound that changes. ) The first people to write in English used an existing alphabet – the Roman alphabet, which was itself adapted from the Greek alphabet for writing in Latin. (In the Roman Empire, Latin was the official language of government and administration, and especially of the army but in the eastern parts of the empire Greek was the official language, and in Rome Greek was spoken as widely as Latin. Because these first writers of English (Latin-speaking Roman monks) had more sounds than letters, they used the same letters to represent different sounds – perhaps making the assumption that the reader would recognize the word, and supply the appropriate sounds. It would be many years before anyone would think it possible to have more consistent spelling, and this has never been a realistic option for writers of English, though spelling has changed over time. And, in any case, the sounds of Old English are not exactly the same as the sounds of modern English. As linguists have become aware of more and more languages, many with sounds never heard in English, they have tried to create a comprehensive set of symbols to correspond to features of sound – vowels, consonants, clicks and glottalic sounds and non-segmental or suprasegmental features, such as stress and tone. Among many schemes used by linguists one has perhaps more authority than most, as it is the product of the International Phonetic Association (IPA). In the table below, you will see the phonetic characters that correspond to the phonemes used in normal spoken English. To give examples is problematic, as no two speakers will produce the same sound. In the case of the vowels and a few consonants, the examples will not match the sounds produced by all speakers – they reflect the variety of accent known as Received Pronunciation or RP. Note that RP is not specific to any region, but uses more of the sounds found in the south and midlands than in the north. It is a socially prestigious accent, favoured in greater or less degree by broadcasters, civil servants, barristers and people who record speaking clock messages. It is not fixed and has changed measurably in the last 50 years. But to give one example, the sound represented by ? is not common to all UK native speakers. In many parts of London and the south-east of England the sound represented by f will be substituted. So, in an advertisement, the mother-in-law of Vinnie Jones (former soccer player for Wimbledon and Wales; now an actor) says: â€Å"I fought ‘e was a big fug† (/a? f t i? w? z ? b? g fug/). You may also wonder what has happened to the letter x. This is used in English to represent two consonant sounds, those of k and s or of k and z. In phonetic transcription these symbols will be used. Consonant and vowel each have two related but distinct meanings in English. In writing of phonology, you need to make the distinction clear. When you were younger you may have learned that b,c,d,f and so on are consonants while a,e,i,o,u are vowels – and you may have wondered about y. In this case consonants and vowels denote the letters that commonly represent the relevant sounds. Phonologists are interested in vowel and consonant sounds and the phonetic symbols that represent these (including vowel and consonant letters). It may be wise for you to use the words consonant and vowel (alone) to denote the sounds. But it is better to use an unambiguous phrase – and write or speak about consonant or vowel sounds, consonant or vowel letters and consonant or vowel symbols. In most words these sounds can be identified, but there are some cases where we move from one vowel to another to create an effect that is like neither – and these are diphthongs. We also have some triphthongs – where three vowel sounds come in succession in words such as fire, power and sure. (But this depends on the speaker – many of us alter the sounds so that we say â€Å"our† as if it were are. For convenience you may prefer the term vowel glides – and say that â€Å"fine† and â€Å"boy† contain two-vowel glides while â€Å"fire† may contain a three-vowel glide.  © Copyright: Andrew Moore, 2001 http://www. shunsley. eril. net/armoore/ Phonology IPA symbols for the sounds of English The examples show the letters in bold that correspond to the sound that they i llustrate. You will find guidance below on how to use these symbols in electronic documents. The IPA distributes audio files in analog and digital form, with specimen pronunciations of these sounds. Consonants – pip, pot p b – bat, bug t – tell, table d – dog, dig k – cat, key g – get, gum f – fish, ph phone v – van, vat ? – th thick, th thump, faith th ? – th these, th there, smooth th s – sat, sit z – zebra, zap ? – sh ship ? – treasure, leisure s s h – hop, hut t? – ch chip dge, dge d? – lodg judg dg dg m – man, mumm mmy mm n – man, pan n n ng, ng ? – sing wrong ng l – let, lips r – rub, ran w – wait, worm j – yet, yacht Short vowels ? – bit, silly i i ? – bet, hea e ead ea ? – cat, dad a a ? – dog, rotten o o ? – cut, nut u u ? – put, soo u oot oo ? – about, clever er Long vowels i? – crea eam, see een ea ee bur fir urn, ir irm ur – har far ard, ar ar – cor fau orn, au aun or u? – boo glue oob, ue oo Diphthongs a? – spice, pie i ie – wai fate ait, a ai – toy joy oy, oy oy – oa oats, note o a? – clow vow own, ow ow – bor ored, pour oured or our – dee pie eer, ie ier ee – hai bea air, ea ear ai – cur fue ure, ue uel ur  © Copyright: Andrew Moore, 2001 http://www. shunsley. eril. net/armoore/ Phonology A phoneme is a speech sound that helps us construct meaning. That is, if we replace it with another sound (where this is possible) we get a new meaning or no meaning at all. If I replace the initial consonant (/r/) from rubble, I can get double or Hubble (astronomer for whom the space telescope is named) or meaningless forms (as regards the lexicon of standard English) like fubble and wubble. The same thing happens if I change the vowel and get rabble, rebel, Ribble (an English river) and the nonsense form robble. (I have used the conventional spelling of rebel here, but to avoid confusion should perhaps use phonetic transcription, so that replacements would always appear in the same position as the character they replace. But what happens when a phoneme is adapted to the spoken context in which it occurs, in ways that do not alter the meaning either for speaker or hearer. Rather than say these are different phonemes that share the same meaning we use the model of allophones, which are variants of a phoneme. Thus if we isolate the l sound in the initial position in â€Å"lick† and in the terminal position in â€Å"ball†, we should be able t o hear that the sound is (physically) different as is the way our speech organs produce it. Technically, in the second case, the back of the tongue is raised towards the velum or soft palate. The initial l sound is called clear l, while the terminal l sound is sometimes called a dark l. When we want to show the detail of phonetic variants or allophones we enclose the symbols in square brackets whereas in transcribing sounds from a phonological viewpoint we use slant lines. So, using the IPA transcription [l] is clear l, while [? ] is dark l. If this is not clear think: am I only describing a sound (irrespective of how this sound fits into a system, has meaning and so on)? If so, use square brackets. Am I trying to show how the sound is part of a wider system (irrespective of how exactly it sounds in a given instance)? If so, use slant brackets. So long as we need a form of transcription, we will rely on the IPA scheme. But increasingly it is possible to use digital recording and reproduction to produce reference versions of sounds. This would not, of course, prevent change in the choice of which particular sounds to use in a given context. When people wonder about harass (h? r? s) or harass (h? r? s) they usually are able to articulate either, and are concerned about which reveals them as more or less educated in the use of the â€Å"proper† form. For your information, the stress historically falls on the first syllable, to rhyme with embarrass – thus in both Pocket Oxford [UK, 1969] and Funk Wagnalls New Practical Standard [US, 1946]. The fashion for â€Å"hu-rass† is found on both sides of the Atlantic and we should not credit it to, or blame it on, US speakers of English. ) Phonologists also refer to segments. A segment is â€Å"a discrete unit that can be identified in a stream of speech†, according to Professor Crystal. In English the segments would correspond to vowel sounds and consonant sounds, say. This is a clear metaphor if we think of fruit – the number of segments varies, but is finite in a whole fruit. So some languages have few segments and others many – from 11 in Rotokas and Mura to 141 in ! Xu. The term may be most helpful in indicating what non-segmental or supra-segmental (above the segments) features of spoken language are.  © Copyright: Andrew Moore, 2001 http://www. shunsley. eril. net/armoore/ Phonology The sounds of English Vowels English has twelve vowel sounds. In the table above they are divided into seven short and five long vowels. An alternative way of organizing them is ccording to where (in the mouth) they are produced. This method allows us to describe them as front, central and back. We can qualify them further by how high the tongue and lower jaw are when we make these vowel sounds, and by whether our lips are rounded or spread, and finally by whether they are short or long. This scheme shows the following arrangement: Front vowels â⠂¬ ¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ /i? / – cream, seen (long high front spread vowel) /? /- bit, silly (short high front spread vowel) /? / – bet, head (short mid front spread vowel); this may also be shown by the symbol /e/ /? – cat, dad (short low front spread vowel); this may also be shown by /a/ Central vowels †¢ †¢ †¢ / /- burn, firm (long mid central spread vowel); this may also be shown by the symbol / / /? / – about, clever (short mid central spread vowel); this is sometimes known as schwa, or the neutral vowel sound – it never occurs in a stressed position. /? / – cut, nut (short low front spread vowel); this vowel is quite uncommon among speakers in the Midlands and further north in Britain Back vowels †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ /u? / – boob, glue (long high back rounded vowel) /? – put, soot (short high back rounded vowel); also shown by /u/ / / – corn, faun (long mid back rounded vowel) also shown by /o? / /? /- dog, rotten (short low back rounded vowel) also shown by /o/ / / – hard, far (long low back spread vowel) We can also arrange the vowels in a table or even depict them against a cross-section of the human mouth. Here is an example of a simple table: Front High Mid Low Central Back ? i? ? ? ? ? ? u? ?  © Copyright: Andrew Moore, 2001 http://www. shunsley. eril. net/armoore/ Phonology Diphthongs Diphthongs are sounds that begin as one vowel and end as another, while gliding between them. For this reason they are sometimes described as glide vowels. How many are there? Almost every modern authority says eight – but they do not all list the same eight (check this for yourself). Simeon Potter, in Our Language (Potter, S, [1950] Chapter VI, Sounds and Spelling, London, Penguin) says there are nine – and lists those I have shown in the table above, all of which I have found in the modern reference works. The one most usually omitted is / / as in bored. Many speakers do not use this diphthong, but use the same vowel in poured as in fraud – but it is alive and well in the north of Britain. Potter notes that all English diphthongs are falling – that is the first element is stressed more than the second. Other languages have rising diphthongs, where the second element is stressed, as in Italian uomo (man) and uovo (egg). Consonants Some authorities claim one or two fewer consonants than I have shown above, regarding those with double symbols (/t? / and /d? /) as â€Å"diphthong consonants† in Potter’s phrase. The list omits one sound that is not strictly a consonant but works like one. The full IPA list of phonetic symbols includes some for non-pulmonic consonants (not made with air coming from the lungs), click and glottal sounds. In some varieties of English, especially in the south of Britain (but the sound has migrated north) we find the glottal plosive or glottal stop, shown by the symbol /? / (essentially a question mark without the dot at the tail). This sound occurs in place of /t/ for some speakers – so /bot? l/ or /botl/ (bottle) become /bo l/ or /bo? l/. We form consonants by controlling or impeding the egressive (outward) flow of air. We do this with the articulators – from the glottis, past the velum, the hard palate and alveolar ridge and the tongue, to the teeth and lips. The sound results from three things: †¢ †¢ †¢ Voicing All vowels must be voiced – they are caused by vibration in the vocal cords. But consonants may be voiced or not. Some of the consonant sounds of English come in pairs that differ in being voiced or not – in which case they are described as voiceless or unvoiced. So b is voiced and p is the unvoiced consonant in one pair, while voiced g and voiceless k form another pair. We can explain the consonant sounds by the place where the articulation principally occurs or by the kinds of articulation that occurs there. The first scheme gives us this arrangement: voicing – causing the vocal cords to vibrate where the articulation happens how the articulation happens – how the airflow is controlled  © Copyright: Andrew Moore, 2001 http://www. shunsley. eril. net/armoore/ Phonology Articulation described by region †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ Glottal articulation – articulation by the glottis. We use this for one consonant in English. This is /h/ in initial position in house or hope. Velar articulation – we do this with the back of the tongue against the velum. We use it for initial hard /g/ (as in golf) and for final /? / (as in gong). Palatal articulation – we do this with the front of the tongue on the hard palate. We use it for /d? / (as in jam) and for /? / (as in sheep or sugar). Alveolar articulation – we do this with the tongue blade on the alveolar ridge. We use it for /t/ (as in teeth), /d/ (as in dodo) /z/ (as in zebra) /n/ (as in no) and /l/ (as in light). Dental articulation – we do this with the tip of the tongue on the back of the upper front teeth. We use it for /? / (as in think) and /? / (as in that). This is one form of articulation that we can observe and feel ourselves doing. †¢ †¢ Labio-dental articulation – we do this with the lower lip and upper front teeth. We use it for /v/ (as in vampire). Labial articulation – we do this with the lips for /b/ (as in boat) and /m/ (as in most). Where we use two lips (as in English) this is bilabial articulation. Articulation described by manner This scheme gives us a different arrangement into stop (or plosive) consonants, affricates, fricatives, nasal consonants, laterals and approximants. Stop consonants (because the airflow is stopped) or plosive consonants (because it is subsequently released, causing an outrush of air and a burst of sound) are: o o o †¢ †¢ Bilabial voiced /b/ (as in boat) and voiceless /p/ (as in post) Alveolar voiced /d/ (as in dad) and voiceless /t/ (as in tap) Velar voiced /g/ (as in golf) and voiceless /k/ as in (cow) Affric ates are a kind of stop consonant, where the expelled air causes friction rather than plosion. They are palatal /t? / (as in cheat) and palatal /d? / (as in jam) Fricatives come from restricting, but not completely stopping, the airflow. The air passes through a narrow space and the sound arises from the friction this produces. They come in voiced and unvoiced pairs: o o o o Labio-dental voiced /v/ (as in vole) and unvoiced /f/ (as in foal) Dental voiced /? / (as in those) and unvoiced /? / (as in thick) Alveolar voiced /z/ (as in zest) and unvoiced /s/ (as in sent) Palatal voiced /? / (as in the middle of leisure) and unvoiced /? / (as at the end of trash) †¢ Nasal consonants involve closing the articulators but lowering the uvula, which normally closes off the route to the nose, through which the air escapes. There are three nasal consonants in English: o o o Bilabial /m/ (as in mine) Alveolar /n/ (as in nine) Velar /? / (as at the end of gong).  © Copyright: Andrew Moore, 2001 http://www. shunsley. eril. net/armoore/ Phonology †¢ †¢ Lateral consonants allow the air to escape at the sides of the tongue. In English there is only one such sound, which is alveolar /l/ (as at the start of lamp) Approximants do not impede the flow of air. They are all voiced but are counted as consonants chiefly because of how they function in syllables. They are: o o o Bilabial /w/ (as in water) Alveolar /r/ (as in road) Palatal /j/ (as in yet) Syllables When you think of individual sounds, you may think of them in terms of syllables. These are units of phonological organization and smaller than words. Alternatively, think of them as units of rhythm. Although they may contain several sounds, they combine them in ways that create the effect of unity. Thus splash is a single syllable but it combines three consonants, a vowel, and a final consonant /spl+? +? /. Some words have a single syllable – so they are monosyllables or monosyllabic. Others have more than one syllable and are polysyllables or polysyllabic. Sometimes you may see a word divided into its syllables, but this may be an artificial exercise, since in real speech the sounds are continuous. In some cases it will be impossible to tell whether a given consonant was ending one syllable of beginning another. It is possible, for example, to pronounce lamppost so that there are two /p/ sounds in succession with some interval between them. But many native English speakers will render this as /l? m-p st/ or /l? m-p sd/. Students of language may find it helpful to be able to identify individual syllables in explaining pronunciation and language change – one of the things you may need to do is explain which are the syllables that are stressed in a particular word or phrase. Suprasegmentals In written English we use punctuation to signal some things like emphasis, and the speed with which we want our readers to move at certain points. In spoken English we use sounds in ways that do not apply to individual segments but to stretches of spoken discourse from words to phrases, clauses and sentences. Such effects are described as non-segmental or suprasegmental – or, using the adjective in a plural nominal (noun) form, simply suprasegmentals. Among these effects are such things as stress, intonation, tempo and rhythm – which collectively are known as prosodic features. Other effects arise from altering the quality of the voice, making it breathy or husky and changing what is sometimes called the timbre – and these are paralinguistic features. Both of these kinds of effect may signal meaning. But they do not do so consistently from one language to another, and this an cause confusion to students learning a second language.  © Copyright: Andrew Moore, 2001 http://www. shunsley. eril. net/armoore/ Phonology Prosodic features †¢ Stress or loudness – increasing volume is a simple way of giving emphasis, and this is a crude measure of stress. But it is usually combined with other things like changes in tone and tempo. We use stress to convey some kind s of meaning (semantic and pragmatic) such as urgency or anger or for such things as imperatives. Intonation – you may be familiar in a loose sense with the notion of tone of voice. We use varying levels of pitch in sequences (contours or tunes) to convey particular meanings. Falling and rising intonation in English may signal a difference between statement and question. Younger speakers of English may use rising (question) intonation without intending to make the utterance a question. Tempo – we speak more or less quickly for many different reasons and purposes. Occasionally it may be that we are adapting our speech to the time we have in which to utter it (as, for example, in a horse-racing commentary). But mostly tempo reflects some kinds of meaning or attitude – so we give a truthful answer to a question, but do so rapidly to convey our distraction or irritation. Rhythm – patterns of stress, tempo and pitch together create a rhythm. Some kinds of formal and repetitive rhythm are familiar from music, rap, poetry and even chants of soccer fans. But all speech has rhythm – it is just that in spontaneous utterances we are less likely to hear regular or repeating patterns. †¢ †¢ †¢ Paralinguistic features How many voices do we have? We are used to â€Å"putting on† silly voices for comic effects or in play. We may adapt our voices for speaking to babies, or to suggest emotion, excitement or desire. These effects are familiar in drama, where the use of a stage whisper may suggest something clandestine and conspiratorial. Nasal speech may suggest disdain, though it is easily exaggerated for comic effect (as by the late Kenneth Williams in many Carry On films). Such effects are sometimes described as timbre or voice quality. We all may use them sometimes but they are particularly common among entertainers such as actors or comedians. This is not surprising, as they practise using their voices in unusual ways, to represent different characters. The performers in the BBC’s Teletubbies TV programme use paralinguistic features to suggest the different characters of Tinky-Winky, Dipsy, La-La and Po.  © Copyright: Andrew Moore, 2001 http://www. shunsley. eril. net/armoore/ Phonology Accent Everyone’s use of the sound system is unique and personal. And few of us use sounds consistently in all contexts – we adapt to different situations. We rarely adapt our sounds alone – more likely we mind our language in the popular sense, by attending to our lexical choices, grammar and phonology. ) Most human beings adjust their speech to resemble that of those around them. This is very easy to demonstrate, as when some vogue words from broadcasting surf a wave of popularity before settling down in the language more modestly or passing out of use again. This is particularly true of sounds, in the sense that some identifiable groups of people share (with some individual variation) a collection of sounds that are not found elsewhere, and these are accents. We think of accents as marking out people by geographical region and, to a less degree, by social class or education. So we might speak of a Scouse (Liverpool), Geordie (Newcastle) or Brummie (Birmingham) accent. These are quite general descriptions – within each of these cities we would differentiate further. And we should also not confuse real accent features in a given region with stereotyped and simplified versions of these which figure in (or disfigure) TV drama – Emmerdale, Brookside, Coronation Street and Albert Square are not reliable sources for anything we might want o know about their real-world originals. And the student who hoped to study the speech of people in Peckham by watching episodes of John Sullivan’s situation comedy Only Fools and Horses was deeply misguided. Thinking of social class, we might speak of a public school accent (stiff upper lip and cut glass vowels). But we do not observe occupational accents and we are unlikely to speak of a baker’s, soldier’s or accountant’s accent (whereas we might study their special uses of lexis and grammar). This is not the place to study in detail the causes of such accents or, for example, how they are changing. Language researchers may wish to record regional variant forms and their frequency. In Britain today (perhaps because of the influence of broadcasting) we can observe sound features moving from one region to another (like the glottal stop which is now common in the north of England), while also recording how other features of accent are not subject to this kind of change. Studying phonology alone will not answer such questions. But it gives you the means to identify specific phonetic features of accent and record them objectively.  © Copyright: Andrew Moore, 2001 http://www. shunsley. eril. net/armoore/ Phonology Received Pronunciation Received Pronunciation (or RP) is a special accent – a regionally neutral accent that is used as a standard for broadcasting and some other kinds of public speaking. It is not fixed – you can hear earlier forms of RP in historical broadcasts, such as newsreel films from the Second World War. Queen Elizabeth II has an accent st close to the RP of her own childhood, but not very close to the RP of the 21 century. RP excites powerful feelings of admiration and repulsion. Some see it as a standard or the correct form of spoken English, while others see its use (in broadcasting, say) as an affront to the dignity of their own region. Its merit lies in its being more widely understood by a national and international audience than any regional accent. Non-native speakers often want to learn RP, rather than a regional accent of English. RP exists but no-one is compelled to use it. But if we see it as a reference point, we can decide how far we want to use the sounds of our region where these differ from the RP standard. And its critics may make a mistake in supposing all English speakers even have a regional identity – many people are geographically mobile, and do not stay for long periods in any one place. RP is also a very loose and flexible standard. It is not written in a book (though the BBC does give its broadcasters guides to pronunciation) and does not prescribe such things as whether to stress the first or second syllable in research. You will hear it on all the BBC’s national radio channels, to a greater or less degree. On Radio 3 you will perhaps hear the most conservative RP, while Radio 5 will give you a more contemporary version with more regional and class variety – but these are very broad generalizations, and refer mainly to the presenters, newsreaders, continuity announcers and so on. RP is used as a standard in some popular language reference works. For example, the Oxford Guide to the English Language (Weiner, E [1984], Pronunciation, p. 45, Book Club Associates/OUP, London) has this useful description of RP: â€Å"The aim of recommending one type of pronunciation rather than another, or of giving a word a recommended spoken form, naturally implies the existence of a standard. There are of course many varieties of English, even within the limits of the British Isles, but it is not the business of this section to describe them. The treatment here is based upon Received Pronunciation (RP), namely ‘the pronunciation of that variety of British English widely considered to be least regional, being originally that used by educated speakers in southern England. ’ This is not to suggest that other varieties are inferior; rather, RP is here taken as a neutral national standard, just as it is in its use in broadcasting or in the teaching of English as a foreign language. † Accent and social class Accent is certainly related to social class. This is a truism – because accent is one of the things that we use as an indicator of social class. For a given class, we can express this positively or negatively. As regards the highest social class, positively we can identify features of articulation – for certain sounds, upper class speakers do not open or move the lips as much as other speakers of English. Negatively, we can identify such sounds as the glottal stop as rare among, and untypical of, speakers from this social class. Alternatively we can look at vowel choices or preferences. For example, the upper classes for long used the vowel /? / in cases where /? / is standard – thus Coventry would be /k? v? ntri? /. C. S. Lewis in The Great Divorce depicts a character who pronounces God as â€Å"Gud† – â€Å" ‘Would to God’ he continued, but he was now pronouncing it Gud†¦Ã¢â‚¬  We may think of dropping or omitting consonants as a mark of the lower social classes and uneducated people. But dropping of terminal g – or rather substituting /n/ for /? / was until recently a mark of the upper class â€Å"toff†, who would enjoy, huntin’, fishin’ and shootin’. We can find a celebrated literary example in Dorothy L. Sayers’ Lord Peter Wimsey. Among real life speakers in whom I have observed this tendency I would identify the late Sir Alf Ramsey. I do not know whether Alf Ramsey, who managed the England football team, was brought up to speak in this way or acquired the habit later. ) Investigating the connection can be challenging, however, since social class is an artificial construct. Assuming that you have found a way to identify yo ur subjects as belonging to some definable social group, then you can study vowel choices or frequencies. Even the most cursory attention tells us that the Queen has distinct speech sounds. But can we explain them in detail? Does she share them with other members of her family? Do other speakers share them?  © Copyright: Andrew Moore, 2001 http://www. shunsley. eril. net/armoore/ Phonology Pronunciation and prescription The English Language List is an Internet discussion forum for English language teachers. Recently a student, not a native speaker but clearly a very competent writer of English, asked where he could get help to learn to speak in a standard British accent. Many of the responses came from people who were not answering his question but trying to persuade him to stick with his current accent (which he felt would disadvantage him in his business career). Yet we are not disparaging regional accents when we try to learn the neutral and prestigious standard form. (What the discussion never really revealed was how many of the list members would identify themselves as RP speakers. ) The prescriptive tradition in English grammar was unscientific and perhaps harmful. But setting down authoritative standard forms is not always so unwise. In spelling they are useful, and the same may be true of pronunciation. Dictionaries do not compel the reader to learn and use the pronunciations they show – but they do give a representation of the pronunciation according to RP. Some show variant pronunciations as well as the principal RP form. If you are a student (or even a teacher) you may find RP an unfamiliar accent – maybe you can see that the phonetic transcription indicates a pronunciation different from the one you normally use. No one is forcing you to change your own speech sounds, in which your sense of identity may be profoundly located. But you can become aware that the local norm is not the universal standard. Now that English is an international language, its development is certainly not controlled by what happens in the UK. So British RP may cease to be a useful standard for learners of English. Increasingly, language learners favour a mid-Atlantic accent, which shares features of British RP and the speech of the eastern USA. Language acquisition Very young children do not produce the sounds they will use as adults partly because they are unable to form them (physically their speech organs have not developed fully) and partly because they may not know exactly what the sound is that they wish to produce. Children may also be less subtle in controlling the flow of egressive air, so that they will continue speaking, rather than pause briefly, while drawing more air in. Young children may have a sense of stressed syllables as more important – so they may omit unstressed elements before or after. So, for example, a child may ask for a ‘nana rather than a banana. (Alternatively, the child may know that there is some repetition of sound here, but limit it to two syllables. ) I am supposing that the non-standard form is spoken by a child, but perhaps repeated back by adults. But one often observes adults (unhelpfully) using what they suppose to be an easier form of a word. On the other hand, some children have resisted this tendency. Though they may not articulate a word in full or exactly, they can recognize it as an incomplete or mistaken form when an adult repeats it back to them. We see this in this exchange between an adult and a four year old, recorded by George Keith and John Shuttleworth: Adult: What do you want to be when you grow up? Child: A dowboy. Adult: So you want to be a dowboy, eh? Child: No! Not a dowboy, a dowboy! The child cannot articulate the /k/ initial sound but knows that what he hears from the adult is not the form of the word he is used to hearing, so protests. Since children learn by imitation of examples it may be helpful when they begin formal education to give them such examples, but not by continually rebuking them for saying things â€Å"wrongly†. Children do not learn to articulate all sounds at the same stage in their development. Teachers of children in early years (nursery and reception) classes should be able to identify the few cases where there is a disorder or problem for which some specialist intervention is appropriate.  © Copyright: Andrew Moore, 2001 http://www. shunsley. eril. net/armoore/ Phonology Language change Change happens in language – and the sounds of English are not exempt. Of course, basic sounds do not change in the sense that the phonemes represented in the IPA transcription will not go away. And it is rare, but not impossible, for speakers of a given language to begin to use phonemes they did not use before. Thus, most English speakers faced with French –ogne (as in Boulogne or Dordogne) anglicise to Boloyn (/b? l n/). And Welsh double l in initial position (as in Llanfair and many other place names) they sound simply as /l/ rather than a voiceless unilateral l. What does change is the choice of which sound to use in a given context – though choice may suggest that this is voluntary whereas the change normally happens unnoticed. At a very simple level we can see, from rhymes in poetry that no longer work, that one or more words has acquired a new standard pronunciation. So John Donne writes (1571-1631) â€Å"And find/What wind/Serves to advance an honest mind†. We have retained the vowel sound in wind (verb, as in wind up) but not in wind (noun, as in north wind). We can still observe vowel change. In my own lifetime envelope was pronounced with the initial vowel /? (as if it were onvelope). This pronunciation is becoming more rare, and persists mostly among older speakers. Turquoise was once commonly sounded as in French /t kw? z/ – but now it is more or less uniformly /t k z/ or /t k s/ (perhaps by analogy with tortoise). Far more common are changes in stress patterns. So research (more or less universal in the UK when I was a child) has given way to re-search. In the case of harass the stress has shifted the other way, giving harass. We cannot sensibly say that the new form is â€Å"wrong† or â€Å"bad English† (even if we prefer the older form). But we can observe the frequency with which the new form occurs, and see if it does come to supplant the older form or whether both forms persist. Change happens within regional varieties, too – so the glottal stop has moved its way northwards from London and southwards from Glasgow (where it has been found for 150 years). This is one feature of what Paul Kerswill calls dialect levelling. Similarly use of /f/ or /v/ in place of /? / and /? / is spreading north from London. Perhaps the most well documented change occurring now is in sentence intonation. This is especially common among younger people, but not exclusively so. The change lies in a tendency to use rising (question) intonation more frequently. What is not clear, in contexts that allow either, is whether the speaker intends to ask a question or means to make a statement. We cannot be sure if the rising intonation conveys meaning, or is habitual. One common way for pronunciation to change is by elision – compressing the word to remove a syllable. Once it was common to sound the –ed ending on past tense verbs, whereas now these verbs end with a /t/ sound. We do still sound the –ed ending on adjectives, even when these are formed from the past tenses – as in naked, wicked and learned. We can contrast the learned professor with what her pupils learned in the lecture. (The first has two syllables, the second only one. ) Police is often pronounced as a monosyllable /pli? s/ (for example by the newsreader Sue Lawley). Recently I have observed several newsreaders eliding the middle syllable of terrorist, producing the form /t? r st/ or sometimes /t? r? st/. On the other hand, literacy may alter pronunciation. The n in column is silent, and in the Second World War, people would often speak of the Fifth Columnist (/k? l? m? st/). But now broadcasters speaks of those who write columns in newspapers as /k? l? mn? sts/ – thereby sounding what was silent /n/.  © Copyright: Andrew Moore, 2001 http://www. shunsley. eril. net/armoore/ Phonology Phonology for exam students Phonology as an explicit subject of detailed study is not compulsory for students taking Advanced level courses in English Language. But it is one of the five â€Å"descriptions of language† commended by the AQA syllabus B (the others are: lexis, grammar, pragmatics and semantics). In some kinds of study it will be odd if it does not appear in your analysis or interpretation of data. In written exams, you may want to comment on some features of phonology in explaining example language data – these may be presented to you on the exam paper, or may be your own examples, which illustrate, say, some point about language change, language acquisition or sociolinguistics. You may wish to use diagrams, models or the IPA transcription – and if you are able to do so, this may be helpful. But if you do not feel confident about using these, you can still make useful points about phonology – you can show stress simply by underlining or highlighting the stressed syllable. And you can show many aspects of phonology by using the standard Western (Roman-English) alphabet appropriately – as in contrasting pronunciations of harass as: †¢ †¢ ha-russ (first syllable stressed, vowel is a; second syllable unstressed vowel is neutral) or huh-rass (first syllable unstressed, neutral vowel; second syllable stressed, vowel is a) Phonetic symbols and electronic documents Representing phonetic symbols in electronic documents can be a challenge, unless you have the right software. Assuming that you have a word-processing program, you need to use special fonts that will represent the IPA symbols. These are either the SIL IPA fonts (such as SILdoulosIPA) or Unicode fonts (like Lucida Sans Unicode, which I have used in this document). If you are producing work that will be printed, then you can add things by hand later, but this is messy and best avoided. There is a lot of guidance on the IPA homepage about how to cope with this problem. If you do find a way to reproduce the symbols you need, it may make sense to paste them all at the end of the document on which you are working. Then, you can copy and paste as you need to use them. If you do not do this, then you will have to use he Alt key and the numeric keypad, since the keys on the normal keyboard will only give you the symbols that resemble ordinary letters. Different ways of representing sound Conventions of language science and lexicographers If you study reference works you may find a variety of schemes for representing different aspects of phonology – there is no single universal scheme that covers everything y ou may need to do. And many dictionaries may not even use the IPA alphabet, for the very obvious reason that the reader is not familiar with this transcription and can cope without it. The text on the left comes from the Pocket Oxford Dictionary – this shows a simple phonetic representation based on the standard Western alphabet, with accents to show different vowels. Look in any dictionary you have and you may find something similar.  © Copyright: Andrew Moore, 2001 http://www. shunsley. eril. net/armoore/ Phonology Literary models In representing speech – for example in drama, poetry or prose fiction – some authors are interested not merely in the words but also in how they are spoken. One of the most familiar concerns is that of how to represent regional accents. Here is a fairly early example, from the second chapter of Wuthering Heights (1847), in which the servant Joseph refuses to admit Mr. Lockwood into the house: â€Å" ‘T’ maister’s dahn I’t’ fowld. Goa rahnd by the end ut’ laith, if yah went to spake tull him† Tennyson (1809-1892) has a similar approach in his poem, Northern Farmer, Old Style: â€Å"What atta stannin’ theer fur, and doesn’ bring me the aale? / Doctor’s a ‘toattler, lass, and ‘e’s allus i’ the owd taale†¦Ã¢â‚¬  Joseph comes from what is now West Yorkshire, while Tennyson’s farmer is supposedly from the north of Lincolnshire. Here is an earlier example, from Walter Scott’s Heart of Midlothian (1830), which shows some phonetic qualities of the lowlands Scots accent. In this passage the Laird of Dumbiedikes (from the country near Edinburgh) is on his deathbed. He advises his son about how to take his drink: â€Å"My father tauld me sae forty years sin’, but I never fand time to mind him. – Jock, ne’er drink brandy in the morning, it files the stamach sair†¦Ã¢â‚¬  George Bernard Shaw, in Pygmalion (1914), uses one phonetic character (? schwa) in his attempt to represent the accent of Eliza Doolittle, a Cockney flower girl: â€Å"There’s menners f’ yer! T? -oo banches o voylets trod into the mad†¦Will ye-oo py me f’them. † However, after a few sentences of phonetic dialogue, Shaw reverts to standard spelling, noting: â€Å"Here, with apologies, this desperate attempt to represent her dialect without a phonetic alphabet must be abandoned as u nintelligible outside London†. In Pygmalion Professor Higgins teaches Eliza to speak in an upper-class accent, so as to pass her off as a duchess. In the course of the play, therefore, her accent changes. The actress playing the part, however, may have a natural accent closer to that with which Eliza speaks at the completion of her education, so in playing the part she may doing the reverse of what Eliza undergoes, by gradually reverting to a natural manner of articulation. (Eliza’s pronunciation improves ahead of her understanding of grammar, so that at one point she says memorably: â€Å"My aunt died of influenza: so they said. But it’s my belief they done the old woman in. ) In Pygmalion Shaw does not merely represent accent (and other features of speech) but makes this crucial to an exploration of how speech relates to identity and social class. Charles Dickens is particularly interested in the sounds of speech. He observes that many speakers have difficulty with initial /v/ and /w/. Sam Weller, in The Pickwick Papers, regularly transposes these: â€Å" ‘Vell,’ said Sam at length, ‘if this don’t beat cock-fightin’ nothin’ never vill†¦That wery next house†¦Ã¢â‚¬â„¢ â€Å" Mr. Hubble, in Great Expectations does, the same thing when he describes young people as â€Å"naterally wicious†. Joe Gargery, in the same novel, has many verbal peculiarities, of which perhaps the most striking is in his description of the Blacking Warehouse, which is less impressive than the picture Joe has seen on bills where it is â€Å"drawd too architectooralooral†. In Chapter 16 of Our Mutual Friend, Betty Higden is proud of Mr. Sloppy (an orphan she has fostered) not only because he can read, but because he is able to use different voice styles for various speakers. â€Å"You mightn’t think it, but Sloppy is a beautiful reader of a newspaper. He do the Police in different voices. † Dickens also finds a way to show tempo and rhythm. In Chapter 23 of Little Dorrit, Flora Finching speaks at length and without any pauses: â€Å"Most unkind never to have come back to see us since that day, though naturally it was not to be expected that there should be any attraction at our house and you were much more pleasantly engaged, that’s pretty certain, and is she fair or dark blue eyes or black I wonder, not that I expect that she should be anything but a perfect contrast to me in all particulars for I am a disappointment as I very well know and you are quite right to be devoted no doubt though what am I saying Arthur never mind I hardly know myself Good gracious!  © Copyright: Andrew Moore, 2001 http://www. shunsley. eril. net/armoore/ Phonology Background reading on phonology There are very full accounts of phonology in both of Professor David Crystal’s encyclopedias. See his Cambridge Encyclopedia of Language, Part IV, The Medium of Language: Speaking and Listening (pp. 123175; ISBN 0521424437) and his E ncyclopedia of the English Language, Part IV, 17, The Sound System (pp. 236-255; ISBN 0521596556). For a very clear and succinct account, look at Howard Jackson’s and Peter Stockwell’s Introduction to the Nature and Functions of Language, 2. 1, Sounds and letters (pp. 11-23; ISBN 0748725806). There is a longer and more discursive account in Shirley Russell’s Grammar, Structure and Style, Spoken English (pp. 107-168; ISBN 0198311982) You can find lots of help online. The best place to start is the International Phonetic Association’s own Web site at: http://www2. arts. gla. ac. uk/IPA/ipa. html You will find some excellent resources from the languages department of the University of Victoria in British Columbia – start at http://web. uvic. ca/ling/ipa/handbook/ For a great introduction to Scots – with some excellent guidance on phonology – try Andy Eagle’s Wir Ain Laid (Our Own Language) at http://www. scots-online. org/grammar/index. htm For help with fonts go to the IPA Unicode site at http://www. phon. ucl. ac. uk/home/wells/ipa-unicode. htm and Alan Wells’ Unicode Resources at http://www. hclrss. demon. co. uk/unicode/index. tml. You could also try the Microsoft typography site at http://www. microsoft. com/typography/default. asp Apart from materials quoted from other sources, the copyright in this guide belongs to Andrew Moore. You are free to use it for any educational purpose, including making multiple copies electronically or by printing. You may not distribute it in any form other than the original, without the express permission of the author. andrew. moore@eril. net  © Copyright: Andrew Moore, 2001 http://www. shunsley. eril. net/armoore/ How to cite Romeo and Juliet Film and Text Analysis, Papers

Labor Issues and Effects on Economy Past and Present

Unemployment and Labor Issues in the U.S.A Economy Unemployment and labour issues in the United States of America has significantly affected the economy of the United States. In January 2005, for example, the rate of unemployment rose by 0.2 percent to 5.4 percent (The Heritage Foundation, 2005). Increasing unemployment rates causes various effects on the U.S. economy. Some of the effects that unemployment has on the economy are described under the following subtitles.Advertising We will write a custom research paper sample on Labor Issues and Effects on Economy Past and Present specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Effects to the Economy of U.S.A The current economy of the United States of America is characterized by high rates of unemployment. According to relevant sources, the unemployment rate in the United States has been on the rise; for instance, an employment rate of 9.1 percent was reported in the month of May 2011 (The Herita ge Foundation, 2005). Although the economy has regained growth since the 2008 global recession, unemployment rates have remained high due to a weak economy. According to relevant sources, many of the unemployed people in the United States have stayed out of employment for more than six months (The Heritage Foundation, 2005). As stated by many economists, an all time high level of employment results in high costs of living to individual citizens and families. Moreover, the effect is felt by local and regional economies and the economy as a whole. The economic costs associated with unemployment will influence the strength of the economy in a significant way. In the subtitles that follow, the effects of high unemployment rates in the United States are discussed. Loss of Potential National Output Generally, high rates of unemployment lead to wastage of scarce economic resources. As a result, the overall growth potential of an economy is reduced by distinct margins depending on the sever ity. According to economists, an economy characterised by high unemployment produces within its production possibility frontier. As such, there is no recovery for the hours the unemployed people are not working. However, a reduction in the rate of unemployment leads to an increased national output; thus, triggers improvement in the economic welfare. During the third quarter of 2008, the GDP of the United States dropped by 0.5 percent. As a consequence, organizations and many businesses resorted to cutting their spending budgets in every way possible. Since human capital accounts for the highest cost of overheads, organizations started cutting their budgets through layoffs.Advertising Looking for research paper on history? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More However, downsizing of businesses resulted in further negative GDP because layoffs reduce the organizations size and its potential output. As a result of this, potential GDP lo st resulted in additional loss of job opportunities. With the reduction in the total GDP, the United States economy has been weakening over the years. Fiscal Costs to the Government A high rate of unemployment is unhealthy to an economy because it results in increased government expenditures, government borrowing and taxation. Also, when people remain unemployed, they mostly rely on welfare benefits despite the fact they do not pay taxes. This means that the government receives lower tax revenues while its expenditure on welfare benefits for families with no employment increases. Furthermore, the unemployed people will tend to spend less due to limited funds and in the long run, their contribution to the economy in terms of indirect taxes reduces. Therefore, the government will be exposed to a gradual increase in the level of expenditure with a continuous reduction in tax revenues. The trend weakens the economy and may result in further job losses and higher government borrowing to support the economy. As a matter of fact, the New Tax Bill has many implications in the economy of the United States of America. Despite the fact that it is difficult to secure an employment with the current state of the economy, the New Tax Bill guarantees unemployed workers 99 weeks of unemployment benefits. Considering that 10% of the population has stayed out of employment for close to two years, the situation is very worrying for the nation. Furthermore, the increased government spending and reduction in revenues has weakened the economy and may result in closure of companies big employers. This can result in negative multiplier effects on the regional and local economy of the United States. Over the years, constant loss in well paid jobs has led to reduction in the demand for local services, influenced development of negative pressure on house prices, and further loss of employment opportunities. As such, consumer spending has significantly reduced because the unemployed have limited funds to spend on luxury goods. Loss of Investment in Human Capital Long-term unemployment increases wastage of scarce resources which is usually set aside for training workers. Also, the unemployed people are affected because they lose the long earned skills attained in the changing job market. As such, their chances of securing new employment in the future reduce. In its plans to create more job opportunities, the United States government will have to spend extra in additional job training. Unemployment will also result in loss of income by the affected; thus, impacts their spending ability. As a result, most of the affected people experience a decline in their ability to repay loans and their living standards deteriorates.Advertising We will write a custom research paper sample on Labor Issues and Effects on Economy Past and Present specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More How Leaders handled Labor Issues in the Economy During the progressive era (1900 – WWI), the main distinguishing factor with the current economy was the need for reform during that period. â€Å"America directed its full attention to the problems resulting from industrialization and urban growth† (Henretta David, 2010). Progressivism was realized at the national level with the election of Theodore Roosevelt as the president of the United States. In the late 19th century, America emerged as a Great Power ranking with the European powers with respect to economic standards. However, economic growth forced America to search for outlets for its surplus products (Henretta David, 2010). This led to the need for more labor, thereby, creating labor related issues in the long run. In order to counteract the effects of labour issues in the United States, earlier presidents employed various tactics as their solutions. However, earlier presidents had a major task in dealing with the consequences of high unemployment rates. As descri bed below, presidents who had high unemployment rates experienced difficulties in securing their second terms in office (ABC NEWS, 2011): George Bush (unemployment rate of 7.4%) was defeated by Bill Clinton in 1992. Ronald Regan (unemployment rate of 7.5%) was defeated by Jimmy Carter in 1980. Gerald Ford (unemployment rate of 7.8%) was defeated by Carter in 1992. Some of the tactics used to solve labour problems are discussed under the following subtitles. Enactment of Unemployment Laws and Policies In 1935, the 32nd president of the U.S (Franklin Delano Roosevelt) encouraged deficit spending through advocating for formulation of New Deal Policies by the Supreme Court (Spark Notes, 2011). The National recovery Act was enacted shortly before it was ruled out as being unconstitutional because it vested too much power in the president. However, the president started scaling back deficit spending resulting in a second recession. As a result of the Great Depression between 1930 and 19 41, the need for establishment of a bill that protects U.S.A citizens’ employment arose. During this 12 year Depression era, a large percentage of approximately 17.1% of all workers were unemployed (Coalition for Economic and Social Justice, 2008). This meant that the economic capacity of the nation remained idle for the whole duration. The long-term unemployment resulted in the creation of the Full Employment Bill of 1946. The bill was established with the main aim of ensuring employment is provided to the last potential worker among the Citizens of the United States (NPR, 2011). Below are some effects of the Great Depression (1929-1933) in the United States (Effects of the Great Depression, 2011):Advertising Looking for research paper on history? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More In 1933, the level of industrial production decreased by a huge 46 percent. Between 1929 and 1933, the United States GNP dropped to 56 billion dollars (1.85 times) from a high of 103.9 million dollars. As a result, the rate of unemployment increased from 3.2 percent to 25 percent in the year 1933. â€Å"This amounted to approximately 12.8 million in unemployed U.S citizens† (Effects of the Great Depression, 2011). About 135,000 companies and financial institutions collapsed resulting in 60 percent reduction in corporate earnings (Effects of the Great Depression, 2011). As a result of the depression, Franklin D. Roosevelt signed a new deal to assist in the recovery of the economy. â€Å"In his deal, he proposed for creation of new job opportunities such as painting of the post office and cleaning of the streets† (Effects of the Great Depression, 2011). Stimulus Packages to Revive Economy After the 2008 Global recession, the rate of unemployment was high and more peopl e were in the verge of loosing their employment. As a way of reducing the unemployment, president Barrack Obama introduced the Recovery Act funding that was released to boost the economy. The plan involved distribution of large sums of money into the economy that would help in the creation of new job opportunities and increase the living standards of United States Citizens. These plans quickly led to a wave of positive effects within the economy as described below: More job opportunities were created and companies started gaining positive growth. Currently, the rate of unemployment in the United States has dropped from 9.0 percent to 8.9 percent since the 2008 financial crisis. Auto manufacturers started creating contract jobs for employees in order to increase their flexibility. For instance, Chrysler auto manufacturer increased its U.S. contract labour by approximately 150 percent. The state of employment in the United States has improved significantly with indication of more fut ure growth. Conclusions In conclusion, it is inevitable to note that the long-term high rate of unemployment in the United States has impacted negatively on the economy. Unemployment has led to increased budget spending through increased welfare benefits for families with non working citizens. Also, government revenue has decreased since the unemployed citizens do not pay tax and have lower spending, which, further decreases revenue from indirect taxes. Therefore, it is important for the government to come up with long-term plans and policies that would help revive the economy and create enough job opportunities for all Americans. References ABC NEWS 2011. Lesson for Obama: History Not Kind to Presidents with High Unemployment Rates. ABC News. Web. Coalition for Economic and Social Justice 2008. The Case for a Full Employment Policy. Jobs and Justice. Web. Effects of the Great Depression 2011. Effects of the Great Depression. Jobs and Justice. Web. Henretta, James A. and David Brod y. America: A Concise History, Volume II: Since 1877. 4th ed., Boston: Bedford/St. Martin’s, 2010. NPR 2011. The Nation: Zero Unemployment Possible? NPR.  Web. Spark Notes 2011. The Great Depression (1920-1940). Spark Notes. Web. The Heritage Foundation 2005. Unemployment Rates of Modern Presidents. Heritage Foundation. Web. 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